Somalia

Somali Republic

The country is today officially known as the Republic of Somalia (جمهورية الصومال‎). During the classical period many city states arose along the coast, inviting trade from Phoenicia, Egypt, Greece, Persia, Saba, Nabataea and the Roman Empire. Present day Somalia was an integral part of the ancient Silk Road. Islam began to influence Somali culture in the 7th century, with Mogadishu becoming the Islamic cultural center of East Africa. Yet the region remained a scattered collection of city states and minor kingdoms well into the 16th century, when dynasties such as the Gerad, Bari and Gobroon began carving out larger territories to govern. During the 19th century, as various European powers began the "Scramble for Africa," Britain and Italy were both competing for control of what would eventually become Somalia. Each successfully established its own colony or protectorate, British Somaliland (est. 1884) in the north and Italian Somaliland (est. 1889) making up the bulk of the coastline. This prompted the creation of the Dervish State (established by Somali religious leader Muhammad Abdullah Hassan), which successfully repelled several British incursions and would eventually be recognized as an ally by Germany and the Ottoman Empire during the First Wworld War. The Dervish State finally fell in 1920 following a British campaign of aerial bombing.

British Somaliland was captured by Italy in August 1940, thus bringing all of present day Somalia under Italian control for a brief period, until retaken along with the rest of Somalia by the British in February of 1941. After the war, the League of Nations returned control of Italian Somaliland to Italy. Thus it was not until June of 1960 that Somalia would achieve its independence as the Somali Republic.

Democratic government would be short-lived, however, when in October 1969 President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated and the Somali Army siezed power in a military coup d'etat. The constitution was subsequently suspended and the country renamed the Somali Democratic Republic, effectively under a communist government (embracing scientific socialism and Islamic tenets). During the Ogaden War (July 13, 1977 to March 15, 1978) Somali forces attempted to sieze control of the Ogaden region of Ethiopia, but were repelled by that nation (with Soviet and Cuban military assistance). Somalia would until 1988 be adopted as a Cold War client state by the United States.

Since 1991, Somalia has been in a constant state of civil war, with numerous militia groups such as the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) taking shape. Supported and supplied by Ethiopia, these militia groups toppled the long-standing regime of Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, but essentially led the nation down the path of civil war, as various rival groups have refused to compromise or recognize any authority. In 1992, the United Nations authorized a limited peacekeeping presence (UNOSOM I) which was largely ineffective, thus leading the United States to organize a military coalition (UNITAF) to stabilize the nation. When the United States withdrew in 1993, the second UN peacekeeping mission (UNOSOM II) replaced it, remaining in the country until 1996 but never succeeding in the restoration of government rule. Although a Transitional Federal Government was established in 2004, Somalia remains in a state of civil war between warring militias, and as a result hundreds of thousands of civilians have fled as refugees.

There are officially eighteen administrative regions dividing the nation, each region consisting of one or more subdivisions. Several of these regions now exist as semi-autonomous states, including Somaliland, Puntland (Buntlaand), Awdalland, and the Khatumo State.

Until 1991, the armed forces of Somalia consisted of the Army, Navy and Air Force, with a National Police Force being tasked with internal security. At the outbreak of civil war, the national armed forces were dissolved, but there have been efforts to rebuild it under the present Transitional Federal Government. The Somalia National Army (SNA) traditionally adopted camouflage patterns worn by other nations, although in recent years a number of variant patterns have emerged in Somalia that appear to be unique to the nation.

Camouflage Patterns of Somalia

• From its formation in 1960s and well into the 1980s, the standard uniform of most Somalia military personnel was solid tan or khaki. The first camouflage design to see widespread use was the Pakistani-produced "arid brushstroke" pattern, which saw extensive use among Somalia personnel during the Ogaden War and well into 1980s.

• Of undetermined origins, the three-color desert pattern seen here has been documented in use with Somali troops, mostly during the period immediately following the Ogaden War. Although not a direct copy, it appears likely the design was influenced by Italian M-1929 telo mimetico camouflage, some of which certainly made its way into the country from native Italy, which administered Somalia as a Trust Territory until 1960. Although detailed photographs are limited, the pattern appears to feature large blobs of olive green (in some versions it is more of a bright yellow) and rust brown on a sand-colored background. Stocks of the camouflage appear to have disappeared by 1980. This may be the only example of a locally-produced camouflage design from Somalia.

• This three-color brushstroke camouflage design, produced in South Korea and known to have been be worn by Iraq, began to see service with Somalian personnel beginning in the mid-1980s, although it was never worn extensively and may have been restricted to certain units.

• Originally appearing in the mid-1980s, the US m81 woodland camouflage pattern has seen extensive use with the Somalian Army, various militias, and the newly constituted army of the Federal government well into the present era. Early examples suggest uniforms were locally-made from imported fabrics, but there are also examples of surplus US BDUs that were probably provided by the United States in the late 1980s when the country became a Cold War client. Various uniform styles and fabric types have been documented over the years.

• During the era of the Transitional Federal Government, the newly re-formed military forces wore a variety of camouflage patterns that had not been encountered previously in Somalia. Some personnel can be seen wearing variations of the American six-color "chocolate chip" desert pattern, probably produced in Pakistan or India.

• During the same era of the Transitional Federal Government, circa 2006-2007, US tricolor desert pattern uniforms were also observed among the transitional Somali military forces.

• Also appearing around 2007 with the armed forces of the Transitional Federal Government, a variation of woodland camouflage having a color palette most suitable to semi-arid environments. At a glance, the uniforms simply look like faded woodland camouflage; however, this is not the case, and it is evident the pattern was printed with this unique coloration: black, light brown, and pale green shapes on a sandy-colored background.

• The two-color desert pattern seen here first appeared in 2004 among the militia loyal to General Mahmud Jamal, and then later in 2006-2007 photographs of personnel identified as Somalian Army veterans. The design has wide swathes of reddish-brown on a sandy background and appears to be unique and not a copy of something issued elsewhere.

• In 2009, members of the Transitional Federal Government's new Somalia National Army received training from European instructors and were supplied with the DPM camouflage pattern variant seen here.

• Circa 2012, another curious pattern that began to see use by the Somalian National Army was the Iranian "panther" pattern. Whether sourced directly from Iran or copied by a factory in China or elsewhere is unknown, but large enough quantities were obtained to consider it more than simply an isolated occurrence.

• Established in 2013, the National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA) or Hay'ada Sirdoonka iyo Nabadsugida is the national intelligence service of the Somali Federal Government. The agency replaced the old National Security Service, which had dissolved by 1990. The Gaashaan or "Shield" Force is a counter terrorist unit consisting of three elements: Alpha Group (which received training in the USA from 2009-10), Bravo Group (which was trained at the Mogadishu Airport in 2011) and Danaab (Lighting) Group, which has been trained separately by US security personnel and is modeled after the US Army Rangers. Elements of the Gaashaan have worn several types of camouflage since its creation, including standard US woodland, the US-designed A-TACS arid pattern, a copy of the USMC MARPAT, and the All-Terrain Tiger design created by Tiger Stripe Products:

• Somali troops trained by Turkey in 2014 received new uniforms in the Turkish Armed Forces nano camouflage pattern. Since 2017, Turkey has had a military presence in Somalia - Camp TURKSOM - the purpose of which is to train and prepare Somali Army officers and NCOs for sustainability. This training assistance extends to the Somali Navy and Coast Guard as well.

• A semi-arid digital pattern has been documented in use by Somali Army soldiers since at least 2018. The pattern consists of black, light brown and olive green shapes on a sand-colored background, and is of undetermined origin.

• SNA Commandos, freshly returned from training in Turkey, were outfitted in the Turkish Army's three-color arid camouflage design in February 2020. It is unknown whether the pattern will continue to be worn by this unit or any others in Somalia.

• Also trained and outfitted by Turkey, the Special Operations Command Battalion - aka Ciidanka Haramcad (Cheetah Unit) - of the Somali Police force (SPF) wear Turkish-made uniforms in the "brown woodland" pattern previously worn by the Turkish Police Special Operations Department (POH). The pattern was originally adopted in 2019 when the battalion was first created. Members of the Cheetah Unit are all graduates of the Turkish Mountain Commando School.

Puntland State of Somalia

Puntland has been a semi-autonomous state since August 1998. The Puntland Security Force (PSF) was created in 2002, primarily to combat jihadist terrorist groups operating within its boundaries. The Puntland Dervish Force (PDF) is a separate entity, operating as a kind of national guard for the region. The Puntland state also operates the Puntland Police Force, and the Puntland Maritime Police Force, as well as its own Intelligence Agency.

• In addition to standard woodland fatigues found throughout Somalia, members of the Puntland Security Force (PSF) were documented in 2014 wearing the desert tiger stripe pattern first developed in the USA by Tiger Stripe Products.

• A MARPAT-like camouflage design, worn by a number of nations in the Middle East and in parts of Africa, was adopted by some units of the PSF prior to 2021. This pattern is still in circulation.

• The same camouflage pattern desigend for the Yemeni Republican Guards has been observed within the Puntland Security Force, although the precise date that this pattern were integrated has yet to be determined. It may date back to 2018, or earlier.

• Most likely sourced from Chinese factories, the Nigerian Armed Forces "woodland blotch" camouflage design has also been worn by elements of the PSF since at least 2019.

• Since 2023, the Puntland Maritime Police Force has worn a copy of the old US Air Force digital tiger stripe camouflage pattern as their operational uniform.

• A special operations unit in Puntland, possibly associated with the Puntland Intelligence Agency, has worn Multicam-pattern camouflage uniforms since at least 2024. It is believed some specialized Puntland units have received training from American special operations forces.

Republic of Somaliland

The Republic of Somaliland has historial ties to the former colonial territory of British Somaliland, and has had cultural and political differences with Somalia despite its voluntarily unification in 1960. Following a ten year conflict - the Somaliland War of Independence - stretching from April 1981 to May 1991 - the Somaliland National Movement (SNM) declared an indepdendent republic. Several countries maintain informal ties with Somaliland into the present era.

The Somaliland Armed Forces were officially formed in 1993 using elements of the SNM. Its two primary branches are the Somaliland National Army (SNA) and the Somaliland Coast Guard, although the state also maintains a Police Force and and Immigration and Border Control Force.

• The Egyptian "sparse desert" or "scrambled eggs" camouflage design has seen sporadic use with Somaliland Armed forces since 1993. This pattern was worn alongside m81 woodland pattern.

• Members of the Somaliland Armed Forces wear a woodland-derived camouflage camouflage similar to some previously produced in Thailand.

• In service since at least 2018, both camouflage designs created for the Yemen Republican Guards have seen service with the Somaliland Armed Forces.

• An SAF Commando unit has been in existence for several years, and since 2024 has worn a commercial copy of the Multicam Tropic camouflage design, similar to that worn by Côte d'Ivoire or Ecuador.

Camouflage of Jihadist Terror Groups

• A number of jihadist terror organizations have been operating in Somalia since the late Civil War period, with activity increasing after the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004. Of particular note was the formation of Hizbul Islam (aka Hizb-ul Islam, Hizbul Islaami, or Hisbi Islam), which took shape in 2004 after four smaller Islamist groups joined forces to oppose the formation of a Federal Government. This group renounced violence in 2013 and has ceased to operate in any paramiltary or terrorist capacity. Although most jihadist groups operate in a combination of civilian and military clothing, with no degree of consistency, a large group of Hizbul Islam insurgents were observed in 2010 outfitted in matching copies of American tricolor desert camouflage uniforms of undetermined origins.

• Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen (حركة الشباب المجاهدين), also known as Al-Shabaab, has been operating out of Somalia since 2007 with the goal of establishing an Islamic Emirate. The group has allied itself with Al-Quaeda since 2012, which is believed to support them financially. Al-Shabaab is believed to support as many as 18,000 jihadis and controls a large amount of territory in Central and South-Central Somalia. A number of photographs suggest large quantities of m81 woodland camouflage uniforms fell into the hands of al-Shabaab, but whether looted from Somalian government warehouses or provided from external sources is unknown.

• The Islamic State - Somalia Province (ولاية الصومال) or ISS, also known as the Abnaa ul-Calipha (أبناء الخليفة) began operating in 2015 as an affiliate of the Islamic State and has operated in and out of neighboring countries as well. The group reputedly only numbers a few hundreds, and is rumored to be funded by illegal gold-mining operations using coerced labor.